Agriculture and irrigation

A grant of 1117 at Anumakonda gave land to a Jain temple. The grant included two marturus of wet land below a tank bund, two marturus of black soil and six marturus of uncultivated land. A marturu was a unit of land area. Other inscriptions call dry land velipolamu or velichenu, as at Matedu in 1120. The Peruru grant of 1260 uses the word chenu alone for dry land.

Parabrahma Sastry divides cultivated land into wet land and dry land. He splits wet land into nirunela, the paddy land, and tota, the garden. Sastry writes that dry land depended on scanty rain and grew millets, sesame, indigo, mustard and castor. Sastry uses the term acchukattu for land that had been brought under the plough and assessed for tax. Telangana – Land and People calls such land ayakattu.

Wet land was usually counted in marturus. A grant of 1120 at Matedu gave the temples several marturus of wet land, and dry fields of one putti each. A grant of 1218 at Kopparam gave one marturu of wet land and four puttis of dry land. Sastry equates the marturu with the Sanskrit nivartana, following the Pakhal inscription. In his view the marturu was mainly a measure of wet land but was sometimes used for dry land. Sastry adds that the grain measures putti and tumu also served as land measures.

Some grants count land in kuntas instead. A grant of 1268 at Pakala, in Nellore district, gave 600 kuntas of wet land. A Naguluppalapadu grant measured 500 kuntas with a pole 12 barlu long. Epigraphia Telanganica dates this grant in two ways. The heading of the entry places the grant in Pratapa Rudra's reign, about 1315. The translation in the same entry gives the Saka year 1175 and names Ganapati Deva as the ruler.

The measuring rod changed from place to place. A grant of 1299 at Alampur measured its marturus with a rod of 32 spans. The Mellacheruvu grant measured wet land with the pedda-gadyamu, the big rod. Sastry notes rods of 20 or 22 spans and of 10 or 11 cubits. He writes that the exact area of a marturu or a putti is not clear, because the authorities give different values. The page on coins, weights and measures explains the units.

Sastry holds that the basic ownership of all land rested with the king, while the cultivator held a secondary ownership. In his view a cultivator could still sell, give or mortgage the land, provided that the tax was paid. Telangana – Land and People repeats this view.

Sastry calls land that had not been granted to anyone the king's land, or rachapolamu. Telangana – Land and People applies the same name to land allotted to agraharas or vrittis. The Mellacheruvu grant names the rachapolamu of black soil and white soil on all sides of that village. Sastry writes that the king leased such land for a half, a third, a quarter or a sixth of the crop, depending on the land. Telangana – Land and People says instead that the rent was mostly one sixth of the crop in normal times.

In 1219 Ganapamba, a daughter of Ganapati Deva, made the Mogalutla grant. The grant says that the dues of tillers who farmed land for a half share should go to the grantee. The plates call these tillers ardha-siri. Sastry explains the ardha-siris as cultivators who paid half the gross produce. Sastry calls newly cultivated land podu. In his view new settlers paid no tax for three years or more, depending on the land. Telangana – Land and People gives this period as three to five years in one place and as three years or more in another.

An agrahara, also called a brahmadeya, was a village or an estate given to Brahmins. In 1203 the general Malyala Chaunda founded the agrahara of Chaundapura at Kondaparthi, together with a tank and a temple. In 1213 Kundamamba, a sister of Ganapati Deva, founded the agrahara of Kundapura with a temple and a tank. Kundapura lay on the north bank of the Godavari. Such grants were often called sarvamanya, which means free of all taxes. Sastry notes, however, that even sarvamanya agraharas and temple lands paid tax at a lower rate. He adds that some of them paid a basic tax called siddhaya.

Some grants also gave ashtabhoga-tejas-svamya, eight rights that included rights over treasure, trees, water and stones. Sastry cites a grant of 1144 at Parada that forbade the donees to leave the village or to sell their shares. Telangana – Land and People reports the same condition.

Land given to a temple was a devavritti. The produce of such land paid for the god's anga-bhoga and ranga-bhoga, the personal and public worship of the god. A Bekkallu inscription of Rudra Deva's reign gives land behind a tank for the devabhoga, the enjoyment of the god.

A vritti was a holding granted for a service, and a manya was a holding on which the tax was remitted. Sastry writes that soldiers, nayakas, ministers and village officers received vrittis instead of salaries. In his view the holders paid almost all the usual taxes on these vrittis. Telangana – Land and People gives the same view.

In 1317 the general Devari Nayaka granted Salakalavidu, a village of his nayamkara, to a temple at the instance of Pratapa Rudra. A nayamkara was a holding granted for military service. Sastry adds that a holder could not give such land away on his own authority.

An unfinished Sanskrit poem inscribed on a hill near Hanumakonda praises the lands of Andhra as golden with ripe paddy. In 1246 Ganapati Deva gave the god of Elesvaram land under two tanks that yielded one putti of rajanalu paddy every day. Rajanalu was a variety of paddy. At Yelkurti the Recherla general Rudra granted rajannasali land under “the big old tank”. The editors of Epigraphia Telanganica think that the best rice probably grew on such land. Sastry calls paddy the staple crop in every part of the kingdom. Telangana – Land and People names both paddy and millets as the staple crops.

Several grants name the seasons in which land gave its crops. A Panugallu grant of Rudra Deva's reign gave wet land behind the Udayaditya tank “to be cultivated in both seasons”. A Burugugadda grant of 1268 gave wet land under the Kuchineni canal that yielded crops in Vaisakha and Karttika. A Yelkurti grant also gave land that yielded crops in both seasons. Sastry explains that land took its name from its harvest. In his explanation, Karttika land gave a crop after the south-west monsoon, and Vaisakha land gave a crop in summer. Land cropped in both seasons was called iru-garu or iru-upu land.

Parabrahma Sastry writes that farmers began the agricultural year at Eruvaka, the full moon of Jyeshtha in June, when the monsoon arrived. In his description the farmers worshipped at a tank bund, a hill or a temple and then sowed their fields. Scholars read one passage of the Upparapalli inscription in two ways. Sastry reads the passage as naming Eruvaka-gubbali, the hill where villagers held this worship. In L. D. Barnett's translation of 1919, the same words read as “the river, a hillock”.

A Warangal inscription of 1228 lists market dues on indigo, areca nuts, coconuts, sesame, wheat, paddy, mustard, turmeric and ginger. The inscription gives these dues to a temple, and it also sets dues on yarn and on cotton cloth. A Bothpur grant of 1272 gave Brahmins “flourishing sugar-cane fields” beside a big tank. A Mudigonda grant of 1294 includes a sugarcane garden and a betel-leaf garden.

Sastry writes that all kinds of millets grew on dry land, and he also names wheat and several pulses. Sastry calls sesame the main oil seed. He names mustard, areca nut, coconut, betel leaf and sugarcane as the chief crops grown for sale. Telangana – Land and People gives the same list. Sastry also writes that the handloom industry depended on cotton, which was grown over large areas.

Gardens and groves appear often in the grants. In the Upparapalli inscription the chief Kataya gave the god land along several canals, mango groves, tamarind trees and a grove of palmyra palms. At Pedaganjam in 1270 a setti, whom Sastry takes to be a merchant, gave garden land to a temple. The cultivator of that garden had to share half of the produce with the temple. From such grants Sastry infers that temple and government land was usually leased for half the gross yield.

The Pakhal inscription credits Pakhal Lake to Jagadala Mummadi, in the reign of Ganapati Deva. Mummadi was a son of the minister Bayyana Nayaka and his wife Bachamamba. The inscription says that Mummadi built the tank at Maudgalya-tirtha, a holy bathing place, close to a temple of Siva-Ramanatha. Beside the tank he founded a city called Ganapapura. He gave a mansion and five marturus of land to the poet Kavichakravarti, who composed the inscription. The inscription carries no date, and its editor assigns it to about 1245.

The 1976 district gazetteer says instead that the Malyala chiefs dug the great tank at Pakhal. The 1900 survey records that the lake is ascribed to Pratapa Rudra. The same survey records a tradition that a Raja Khaldya built the bund 1,600 years earlier.

The sources describe the lake and its dam differently. Sastry places the lake in the basin of the Manair river. His 1975 thesis places it in the basin of the Krishna and the Manair. The Imperial Gazetteer of 1909 says that the Muner river flows out of the lake and falls into the Krishna. The 1976 gazetteer says that the lake lies across the Muner, a tributary of the Krishna.

Sastry describes the dam as one mile long and built of laterite pebbles and red earth. The 1900 survey also gives the bund as about a mile long. The Imperial Gazetteer and the 1981 census handbook give the dam as 2,000 yards long. The 1976 gazetteer gives an earthen embankment 1,219 metres long. Sastry gives the land watered in his day as 9,037 acres. The 1976 gazetteer gives 4,658 hectares.

The sources do not agree on which tank is the largest. The Imperial Gazetteer calls Pakhal the largest artificial lake in Hyderabad State, with an area of nearly 13 square miles. Sastry gives Pakhal a capacity of 2,452 million cubic feet. The UNESCO dossier gives Ramappa Lake a capacity of 2.912 thousand million cubic feet. The 1976 gazetteer gives Pakhal a capacity of 95.8 million cubic metres and Ramappa a capacity of 82.42 million cubic metres. The same gazetteer gives Ramappa the larger water spread, 23.18 million square metres against 20.9 for Pakhal. The answer therefore depends on the measure and on the source.

Recherla Rudra, a general of Ganapati Deva, built Ramappa Lake at Palampet. His inscription of 1213 says that he built a town, a pond and the Rudresvara temple, now called Ramappa. The verses say that the clouds take up the water of the pond, not of the ocean, because the clouds carry sweet water. Sastry thinks that the lake was probably dug at the same time as the temple. He gives the bund as 2,000 feet long and 56 feet high. The UNESCO dossier gives an earthen dam 600 metres long. Sastry records 4,350 acres under the lake in his day. The 1976 gazetteer gives 1,863 hectares under the four channels of the lake.

Mailama, a younger sister of Ganapati Deva and wife of Natavadi Rudra, built the Bayyaram tank. She named it Dharmakirti-samudra after her title Dharmakirti. Her inscription praises the tank in these words: “as deep as Mailamba's mind, as large in extent as her fame”. The verse goes on: “as sweet as her words and as useful to all as her wealth”. The inscription carries no date. Its editors place it after 1209, because her Tripurantakam record of that year lacks the title Dharmakirti. The inscription also says that a stream called Gudlanadi flows from the Godavari and feeds the tank. The editors point out that the Godavari is far away and that no channel links it to the tank.

None of the inscriptions consulted for this page names the builder or the date of the Ghanpur tank. Sastry places the tank in the same period as Ramappa Lake and gives its irrigated land as about 350 acres. The 1981 census handbook and the 1976 gazetteer say that Ghanapur Lake serves nearly 1,620 hectares. Both books count it among the lakes built by the Kakatiya rulers. The UNESCO additional information calls Ghanapuram Cheruvu an irrigation tank like Ramappa Lake but much smaller. A note in the same document says that Ghanapuram is also described as built at the command of Ganapati Deva.

None of the inscriptions consulted for this page names the builder or the date of Laknavaram Lake. Sastry counts Laknavaram among the big tanks of the Kakatiya period. He writes that Laknavaram, the Bayyaram tank and Pakhal Lake are fed by three big streams that flow off one large plateau. The 1981 census handbook says that Laknavaram Lake was formed by closing three narrow valleys with short bunds. The handbook gives the irrigated land of the lake as about 5,260 hectares, and the 1976 gazetteer gives 3,078 hectares. Both books count Laknavaram among the lakes built by the Kakatiya rulers.

Kings also commissioned tanks. The Bayyaram inscription credits Prola I with the Kesari-tataka. The tank was named after the title of Prola I, arigaja-kesari, “lion to elephant-like enemies”. Tataka means tank. Ganapati Deva's Ekamranatha inscription credits the same tank to Prola II. The editors of Epigraphia Telanganica prefer the Bayyaram version. A Hanumakonda inscription of Beta II names two tanks, Kesari-samudram and Setti-kereya. The 1976 gazetteer calls Beta II the first Kakatiya ruler whose name is linked with tanks. Sastry reads the Anumakonda inscription as saying that Rudra Deva dug a big tank in a town that he had captured from Udaya Choda.

Sastry writes that Rudra Deva's minister Gangadhara built the big tank near the present Hanumakonda bus stand. Sastry adds that inscriptions often mention tanks called Ganapa-samudra. He writes that these tanks are believed to have been built by Ganapati Deva or by his chiefs. A later Telugu chronicle, the Pratapa-charitra, says that Ganapati Deva built tanks at Nellore and at Ganapuram in Krishna district.

Royal women and the families of generals also had tanks built. Kundamamba had Kunda-samudram dug beside her agrahara in 1213. An inscription at Katakuru, which carries the dates 1202 and 1206, says that Mailama, the wife of the general Malyala Chaunda, dug two tanks there. This Mailama was a different person from Mailama of Bayyaram. Chaunda himself had Chaunda-samudra dug at Kondaparthi, near Warangal, in 1203.

Inscriptions at Bothpur credit tanks to the general Malyala Gunda. The inscription of 1259 says that Gunda built two tanks near Budapuri and named them after his mother Baca and his wife Kuppamamba. The inscription of 1272 says that Gunda built another tank there, Ganapa-samudram, named after Ganapati Deva. An inscription of 1277 records that Kuppamamba, after Gunda's death, gave land under these tanks. Telangana – Land and People credits the three tanks to Kuppamamba herself and calls her the wife of Malyala Chamunda.

At Pillalamarri in 1202, Nami Reddi of the Recherla family gave the god Namesvara two tanks together with their fields. In 1215 Loki Reddi, of the same family, built the tank Loka-samudra at Utukuru. Sastry notes that the Recherla chiefs dug several tanks in their lands in the present Nalgonda district. Sastry also cites a chief named Bollaya Nayaka of Madapalli, who is credited with at least seven tanks.

Telangana – Land and People reproduces a table by T. Dayakara Rao that counts 180 irrigation works of the Kakatiya period by their patrons. Kings made 77 of them, royal officials 75, royal women 17 and other people 11. A second table in the same book counts 75 works of the subordinate chiefs. This second table credits the Kanduri Chodas with 24 works and the Recherla chiefs with 21.

Priests and merchants also had tanks built. A Manthena inscription records that a local chief gave Manchibhatta, the priest of Ganapati Deva, land on which to found a village with a tank. Epigraphia Telanganica dates this grant to 26 December 1199, in the first year of Ganapati Deva's reign. Sastry also places it in that first year, but in another chapter he dates it to 1299. Sastry cites a Tripurantakam inscription in which the royal preceptor Visvesvara Sivacharya bought forest for 850 gadyanas and founded Visvanathapura with a tank. A gadyana was a gold coin.

In 1304 a merchant named Bairisetti built the tank Sakala-samudra at Peddapariyala. In 1290 Narasimha-setti had a canal dug at Amrabad and gave it to the god Mailara.

The Bothpur inscription of 1259 describes Gunda's bund as “made up of a group of hills and also piles of stones”. A bund is the earthen bank that holds the water. Sastry describes the method of building a tank. In his description the builders chose a point where a stream passed between two hills. The builders closed the gap with a dam of earth and stone, and the land below the dam had to be fertile. The editors of Epigraphia Telanganica describe the Bayyaram tank in the same way, with hillocks joined by high bunds of rock and mud. The UNESCO dossier gives the Ramappa bund as an earthen dam about 600 metres long that joins the hills Vaanagutta and Varalagutta.

A verse of the Bayyaram inscription describes the bund on the east side of the tank. The verse compares the bund to the Vindhya mountain, which grew until the sage Agastya stopped it. The verse also compares the bund to a hand that the Earth holds out to protect living beings from the overflowing tank. Parabrahma Sastry explains this verse. In Sastry's reading the first comparison conveys the height of the bund, and the second comparison conveys its length.

The UNESCO Management Plan gives Ramappa Lake a capacity of 2.912 thousand million cubic feet. The plan gives the computed yield of its catchment as only 1.12 thousand million cubic feet. The plan says that for this reason the lake was given no surplus weir, a low wall over which flood water escapes. The irrigation department built a surplus weir 36.6 metres long after Andhra Pradesh was formed. The 1976 gazetteer also says that the capacity of the lake is more than two and a half times its present target. Telangana – Land and People makes the same point more generally. The book says that a large tank was often big enough to hold the heaviest rains without a breach.

Tanks were often built in chains. Telangana – Land and People describes golusu cheruvulu, a chain of tanks along one stream. In such a chain the surplus of an upper tank fills the next tank below. The Bothpur inscription of 1259 gives an early example. In the editors' translation, Gunda's second tank, Kuppa-samudram, was “filled with water from a canal” from his first tank, Baca-samudram. The editors' summary of the same inscription calls Kuppa-samudram a canal rather than a tank.

Water left a tank through a sluice, a gated outlet, and ran to the fields along channels called kaluvas. In 1176 Odayana Choda of Kanduru had a sluice built at Nelakondapalli. A grant of 1265 at Alugadapa gave land watered by “the big sluice canal” of the Ravula tank. Sastry describes uta-kaluvas as canals that ran along sandy stream banks and were fed by water under the sand. The UNESCO additional information uses the same name for the four channels of Ramappa Lake.

Where no tank reached, farmers lifted water from wells with a ratana, a water lift. A Dosapadu grant of 1254 gave a temple garden land, timber for ratanas and two bullocks. Sastry writes that bullocks usually worked the lift at deep wells, and men worked it where the water was not deep.

Building a tank was one of the sapta-santana, the seven kinds of offspring. The Ganapesvaram inscription of 1231 lists the seven in verse 43. Jaya, Ganapati Deva's general, set up this inscription. E. Hultzsch translates the verse as saying that Jaya possesses offspring in the shape of seven acts. In the translation of Hultzsch the seven are a son, a poem, a treasure, a grove, the marriage, a temple and a tank. Hultzsch adds in brackets that the marriage is the marriage of a girl to a Brahmin.

Sastry cites the same inscription for a different list. His list is a son, a temple, a garden, a tank, an agrahara, a literary work and a treasure. Telangana – Land and People and the UNESCO dossier of 2017 give the same seven deeds. Later in his book Sastry gives a third list. This third list names one's own son, an adopted son, a literary work, an agrahara, a garden, a tank and a temple. Sastry notes that the lists vary but that a temple is always included.

An Inugurthi inscription of 1206 says that Natavadi Rudra and his queen “acquired the sapta-santanas”. Sastry notes that the Karimnagar inscription of 1171, set up by Gangadhara, the minister of Rudra Deva, also refers to the seven deeds. The UNESCO additional information gives a fourth list: tanks, treasures, agraharas, temples, flower gardens, literary works and rest houses. The same document presents Ramappa Lake, its channels and the Rudresvara temple as Recherla Rudra's fulfilment of these deeds.

Two early inscriptions of Beta II record the installation of Varuna, the god of waters. The Hanumakonda inscription mentions a pillar set up when Varuna was installed, together with two tanks. A Khajipet inscription of the same chief also records the installation of Varuna. Sastry writes that the digging of a tank usually began with the setting up of Varuna. Telangana – Land and People says that the installation of Varuna always came first.

The Bothpur inscription says that Gunda's tank “shone with paddy fields and not only caused joy to the cultivators but also fostered all animals”. In the same poem travellers drink the water of the tank and rest in the shade of the trees on its bank. The poem also calls the tank a celestial santana tree that gives fruit on earth and in heaven. Parabrahma Sastry notes that the major inscriptions of Ganapati Deva's reign regularly describe the tanks that the chiefs dug.

Later village traditions also link tanks with the Kakatiyas. Cynthia Talbot studied village histories, called kaiyats, collected for Colin Mackenzie in the early nineteenth century. Talbot found that about one quarter of the kaiyat passages on the Kakatiyas date an event to a Kakatiya reign. The event may be the founding of the village, a change of boundaries or the building of a tank. A tradition recorded at Mutyalapadu in 1811 says that Pratapa Rudra dug a tank or a well wherever he halted on a pilgrimage. The same tradition says that he gave the new settlers ten years free of taxes. Talbot notes that village leaders, many of them Brahmins, produced these histories.

B. Murali Krishna, writing in 2024, describes this pattern as the “three T's” of the Kakatiyas: tank, temple and town. In his description, a tank was built first and a temple was built close to it. A township then grew up around them, with more temples. The phrase is a modern summary and does not come from the inscriptions. The inscriptions list the tank and the temple among the seven deeds, as described above.

Sastry finds no royal department for irrigation. In his view ministers and subordinate chiefs looked after the building of tanks, temples and other works. Telangana – Land and People repeats this view. In each village a nirukattu, or waterman, shared out the tank water among the cultivators. The nirukattu was one of the village servants called ayagars, who held land as vrittis and received grain from the cultivators. A Burugugadda grant of 1268 gives land to a niryettukadu. The editors of Epigraphia Telanganica take this person, with a query, to be a distributor of water.

Sastry lists the main work of upkeep. The bunds needed repair every year, and silt had to be removed from the tank bed. Channels and sluices also needed repair. He writes that many records appoint persons for this work. Those persons received an income called dasavandha. In Sastry's reading the dasavandha was a levy of one kuncha of grain on each putti of the harvest. This levy was also called putti-kuncha or cheruvu-kuncha. Another form, dasavandha-manya, gave the tank-keeper some land under the tank, free of tax. Sastry cites inscriptions of Nellore district for these terms.

The size of the levy is uncertain. Sastry's own table of grain measures makes two kunchas one irasa, two irasas one tumu, and twenty tumus one putti. By this table one kuncha is one eightieth of a putti. Telangana – Land and People instead takes twenty kunchas to make one putti and puts this levy at about five per cent. The same book explains dasabandha as “one-tenth” and puts these tank charges at five or ten per cent. An Elesvaram inscription of 1250 mentions a village given as dasavamdha, but the published summary does not say what work it paid for.

Private persons could also enlarge a tank. Sastry cites an undated record from Amarabad, which he places in the thirteenth century. In this record a man named Mallisetti raised the bund of a temple tank and brought new land under water. Mallisetti paid the temple 30 madas for the land and 25 madas for niri-mudi. He also paid an annual water cess of 10 visas. Madas and visas were units of money. In one chapter Sastry explains niri-mudi as the right to use the tank water. In another chapter he explains niri-mudi as land within the irrigated area.

The great tanks needed repair in later centuries. The Imperial Gazetteer of 1909 lists Pakhal, Laknavaram, Ramappa and Ghanpur among the chief tanks of Warangal District, some of them in disrepair. The 1976 gazetteer says that the tanks had no organised upkeep until the Nizam's government formed an irrigation department in 1896. That department restored Laknavaram in 1909, Ramappa in 1919 and Pakhal in 1922.

Temples received ratanas, or water lifts, as gifts at Sanigaram in 1051, 1053 and 1107. From such gifts Sastry infers that owners of wells let out their ratanas to neighbours who had no well. On this basis Sastry argues that water could be sold. In 1290 the Amrabad canal was given to the god Mailara as a vritti. Sastry thinks that a canal could also earn income, and that the income from the water of this canal went to the temple. Telangana – Land and People repeats these views. A Khajipet inscription of Beta II is much earlier than the Amrabad canal. This inscription seems to lay down rules for collecting a cess on the water supplied from a tank.

The word niruvidi is read in two ways. Sastry takes the word in Rudra Deva's Akunuru grant of 1172 to mean a charge for water drawn from a tank, a well or a stream. The editors of Epigraphia Telanganica read the niruvidis of a Kandukuru grant of 1316 as persons who let out water. That grant asked the niruvidis to give the temple two chinnas and one addugu, which were small coins. The same Kandukuru grant gave one chinna on each marturu of wet land behind the village tanks and canals. The people of Mellacheruvu likewise gave one chinna on each marturu of wet land sown in the Karttika and Vaisakha seasons.

The land under a new tank could be shared by agreement. The Chittapur inscription of 1304, in Pratapa Rudra's reign, concerns a tank built by the merchant Bairisetti.

The summary in Epigraphia Telanganica says that Bairisetti endowed the gods with one third of the crop under the tank. The summary gives the other two thirds as the king's share. Sastry adds that the record fixes this share of one to two whatever the height of the dam and the extent of the land watered. Sastry explains that the king took two thirds because the land belonged to him. In another chapter Sastry suggests that the merchant paid for a licence to trade by digging the tank. The summary mentions neither the fixed share nor a licence.

A tank could itself be divided. At Nagulapadu in 1258 Recherla Kami Reddi divided the tank Nama-samudra into two shares and gave his share to a god. One dispute over a canal went to the king. In 1246 Manchiraja, the minister of Jaya Nayaka, came at the command of Ganapati Deva to settle a dispute over the Gonugu canal of Chamanapalli. Manchiraja questioned the elders of three neighbouring villages beside the canal. The witnesses said that the canal had belonged to Chamanapalli under the old arrangement. Officers then came from Orugallu with the king's order and restored the canal to the Brahmins of Chamanapalli.